[Reprinted  from  School  and  Society,  Vol.  F,  No.  129,  Pages  691-696 , June  16,  1917] 


EDUCATION  FOR  AMERICAN  DEMOCRACY1 


THE  PSYCHIC  BASIS  OF  DEMOCRACY 

American  democracy  in  points  of  magni- 
tude, duration,  economic  progress,  and 
realization  of  individual  liberty — far  sur- 
passes the  restricted  Athenian  democracy, 
is  rivaled  only  by  superb  France,  and  may 
be  emulated  by  the  giant-infant  republic  of 
Russia.  Not  alone  is  it  the  wealth,  poten- 
tial and  achieved,  that  drew  here  men  of  all 
races.  We  whose  fathers  have  dwelt  in 
America  longest  know  that  in  our  constitu- 
tion and  statutes,  and  habituated  in  our 
every-day  thinking,  there  are  steadf  ast  prin- 
ciples such  as  these : In  the  life  of  the  indi- 
vidual there  will  be  liberty  compatible  with 
the  welfare  of  the  majority  of  the  inhabi- 
tants; freedom  of  personal  development 
and  expression  will  be  maintained,  but 
standards  of  conduct  will  be  established  and 
protected  for  the  betterment  of  society. 
The  zealous  protection  of  women  and  chil- 
dren is  seen  in  unremitting  efforts  toward 
progressive  legislation  to  meet  changing  so- 
cial and  economic  conditions,  and  particu- 
larly in  the  Southland  is  cherished  a sur- 
vival of  the  nobler  sentiments  of  chivalry. 
Equality  of  opportunity  is  a right  and  co- 
operation of  civic  responsibility  is  a duty, 
in  American  democracy.  Life  in  its  full- 
ness, true  liberty  and  the  pursuit  of  happi- 
ness based  on  health,  knowledge  and 
achievement,  are  as  yet  found  nowhere  on 
this  globe,  but  all  these  surely  have  been 
nearest  of  realization  in  America,  blessed  of 
all  peoples  of  a world  now  temporarily  re- 

1 Presidential  address  at  the  banquet  of  the 
Southern  Society  for  Philosophy  and  Psychology, 
Lynchburg,  Va.,  April  12,  1917. 


turned  to  fierce  struggle  for  elemental 
things.  In  the  social  consciousness  of  sea- 
soned Americans  we  can  also  discern,  aside 
from  mawkish  sentimentality,  a collective, 
emotional  reaction  in  which  are  mingled 
sentiments  of  admiration  for  our  soil,  our 
mountains,  our  lakes,  our  mines  and  for- 
ests— for  the  very  land  itself  and  for  the 
pioneer-conquerors  of  it,  along  with  convic- 
tions held  in  common  concerning  the  essen- 
tials of  government  and  of  union,  that 
make  for  determined  solidarity  and  broth- 
erhood— a true  patriotism  for  both  peace 
and  war. 

If  the  essence  of  democracy  is  that  ha- 
bitual sentiments  and  convictions  of  this 
kind  are  nourished  in  common  by  the  in- 
creasing millions  of  our  population,  who 
nevertheless  are  more  and  more  remote  in 
time  from  the  aggressive  spirits  who  estab- 
lished these  principles  in  this  land,  then 
measures  can  be  undertaken  by  us  who  now 
live,  for  the  strengthening  of  such  habits 
of  mind  until  they  become  increasingly  per- 
manent. The  perpetuity  of  the  elements  of 
our  democracy  will  be  uncertain,  unless 
there  be  effective  preparation  of  this  kind 
to  train  each  new  generation,  as  well  as  all 
newcomers,  for  social  participation  in  the 
manifold  phases  of  modern  life.  The  best 
instrument  for  this  undertaking  is  the  pub- 
lic educational  system,  from  kindergarten 
through  university. 

WHY  WE  SUPPORT  EDUCATION 

There  are  persons  who  are  still  lukewarm 
or  dubious  about  the  mission  or  the  efficacy 
of  the  public  school  supported  as  a funda- 


2 


SCHOOL  AND  SOCIETY 


mental  phase  of  democratic  life.  Echoes 
' survive  of  the  ideas  of  Herbert  Spencer  op- 
posing education  of  a man ’s  children  by  the 
government;  and  of  J.  S.  Mill,  that  educa- 
tion should  be  at  the  charge  of  the  parent. 
On  the  other  hand,  strong  notes  for  sup- 
port and  for  fearless  readjustments  of  pub- 
lic education  are  being  sounded  to-day  by 
Hall,  Charles  W.  Eliot,  Edward  C.  Elliott, 
Cubberley,  Snedden,  Lange,  Prosser,  Clax- 
ton,  and  by  a host  of  trained  schoolmen  and 
women  of  enlightened,  democratic  spirit. 
We  who  are  concerned  in  the  promotion  of 
sound  principles  of  thinking  especially  with 
regard  to  pure  philosophy,  and  psychology, 
and  experimental  education,  and  who  as 
practical  teachers  must  often  consider  the 
application  of  principles  of  science  and  of 
ethics  to  experiments  and  to  hypotheses  in 
human  education,  a group  sitting  in  an 
hour  of  relaxation  as  citizens,  in  a momen- 
tous year,  may  be  permitted  to  point  sig- 
nificantly to  the  plain  outlines  of  the  com- 
mon structure  of  a democratic  government 
and  of  a public  educational  system.  One 
could  easily  adduce  expressions  from  pub- 
licists and  American  statesmen  firmly  as- 
serting the  principle  of  the  oneness  of 
democracy  and  education.  For  example, 
“Educate  and  inform  the  whole  mass  of  the 
people,”  said  Thomas  Jefferson,  “no  other 
sure  foundation  can  be  devised  for  the 
preservation  of  freedom  and  happiness.” 
We  prefer  for  our  purpose  to  tabulate  the 
reasons  why  a government  of  true  democ- 
racy, whatever  may  be  its  various  adminis- 
trative subdivisions,  supports  public  educa- 
tion. Reasons  why  the  incorporated  peo- 
ple should  establish  and  maintain  educa- 
tion have  been  formulated  repeatedly  by 
men  of  renown,  from  Plato  to  Woodrow 
Wilson.  A type  of  education  is  desirable 
for  civilization  even  in  a monarchy,  but 
that  universal  education  in  a democracy  is 
imperative  appears  from  this  summary  of 
arguments,  which  deserve  frequent  repeti- 


tion before  the  youth  of  this  country  and 
indeed  before  all  peoples. 

( a ) Since  each  child  born  is  a possible 
factor  either  toward  betterment  or  destruc- « 
tion  of  the  state,  the  state  in  self -protection 
must  be  attentive  to  the  conditions  affect- 
ing the  maturing  of  the  plastic  generation. 
The  suffrage,  the  referendum,  and  the  pre- 
vention of  crime  and  degeneracy,  each 
renders  education  a necessary  measure  for 
social  security  upon  the  part  of  the  state. 

(b)  The  accumulation  of  knowledge  and 
skill  has  made  man  a master  of  fire  and 
electricity.  Through  knowledge  he  has  dis- 
pelled savage  superstition,  and  conquered 
many  plagues,  and  filled  hours  of  leisure 
with  music,  art,  and  philosophy.  Prosper- 
ity, even  sustenance,  and  adequate  supply 
of  food,  clothing,  and  shelter  for  our  en- 
larging population,  measures  of  military 
and  naval  defense,  the  fact  of  competition 
in  commerce  and  industry,  the  disappear- 
ance of  apprenticeship,  the  necessity  of 
transmission  of  culture,  and  morality,  and 
law  to  our  successors — these  vital  condi- 
tions render  necessary  the  support  of  pub- 
lic education  by  concerted  action  of  the 
people. 

(c)  It  is  a fact  in  common  experience, 
commemorated  by  poets  more  remote  than 
Lucretius,  and  attested  by  biology  and  psy- 
chology, that  peculiarly  helpless  is  the  hu- 
man being  in  infancy,  and  a being  imma- 
ture, sensitively  responsive  to  physical  or 
psychic  stimuli  which  environ  him  at  birth, 
and  during  infancy,  childhood  and  adoles- 
cence. As  the  lungs  have  a right  to  air, 
the  stomach  to  food,  eyes  to  sunlight — a 
democratic  view  of  life  is  that  every  child 
has  a birthright  to  that  environment  best 
suited  to  his  potentially  useful  capacities. 
The  state  controls  this  general  environment 
into  which  the  child  is  bom  perforce,  and 
therefore  the  state  must  assure  to  every 
child  his  share  of  a birthright,  an  environ- 


SCHOOL  AND  SOCIETY 


3 


ment  indicated  best,  we  believe,  by  the  con- 
cept ‘‘education.” 

( d ) The  task  of  public  education  is  so 
• stupendous  that  only  by  the  authority, 
powers,  and  resources  of  government  can  it 
be  established  and  maintained.  The  lead- 
ership and  supreme  authority  in  public 
education  upon  the  part  of  authorized  or- 
ganization of  the  whole  people,  are  not  in- 
consistent with  the  operation  of  other  use- 
ful agencies  in  education,  private  or  de- 
nominational, conducted  compatibly  with 
the  sound  principles  of  humanism,  prin- 
ciples which,  we  have  faith  to  believe,  are 
at  the  basis  of  true  Americanism.  The 
state  has  not  only  power  and  money  to  sup- 
port education,  but  the  state  alone  can  en- 
force universal  standards  regarding  the 
health,  the  intellectual,  and  the  industrial 
training,  and  ethical  rules,  which  stand- 
ards are  both  incentives  and  also  safe- 
guards in  the  development  of  all  the 
people. 

(e)  Public  education  in  an  enlarged  and 
enlightened  sense  is  in  fact  an  aspect  of 
democracy,  one  inevitable  form  of  its  ex- 
pression. 

Better  realization  of  the  possibilities  of 
democracy  in  assuring  life,  liberty,  and 
the  pursuit  of  happiness,  and  more  money 
for  the  school,  might  come  from  general  de- 
liberation upon  these  well-known  reasons 
for  the  support  of  education  by  every 
phase  of  our  organized  people,  be  it  fed- 
eral, state,  county,  township,  municipality, 
or  other  contributory  agencies.  It  is  op- 
portune in  this  connection  also  to  bring  in 
rapid  review  before  the  people  certain  basal 
facts  about  education,  its  instruments,  the 
difficulties,  and  the  present  status  of  this 
our  greatest  American  undertaking.  The 
broadening  relations  of  education  empha- 
size the  truth  that  many  elements  and 
changes  other  than  the  teacher  and  the 
school  are  operative  in  modifying  the  hu- 
man organism.  It  is  necessary  only  to 


hint  at  the  possible  effects  of  climate,  heat, 
cold,  moisture,  dryness,  proximity  or  re- 
moteness from  the  sea,  disease,  occupation, 
the  family,  the  crowd,  the  church,  the 
press,  the  theater,  peace,  war,  upon  indi- 
viduals, groups,  or  races.  So  impressive  is 
the  magnitude  of  modern  education  ma- 
chinery that  the  incessant  operation  of 
these  agencies  in  innumerable  forms  may 
be  forgotten  if  we  neglect  the  fundamental 
characteristics  of  formal  education  as  an 
undertaking  to  change,  to  develop  or  to 
suppress,  the  original  inheritances  of  man’s 
nature. 

EDUCATION  IS  CHANGE 

We  may  not  be  able  directly  to  cause  or 
to  prevent  desired  changes  in  the  young 
generation  dwelling  daily  for  some  years 
within  the  schoolhouse.  It  is  convenient, 
when  we  define  education  as  a formal  proc- 
ess, to  say,  according  to  Thorndike,  that  it 
is  an  effort  ‘ ‘ to  cause  or  to  prevent  changes 
in  human  beings” — and,  we  add  regret- 
fully, in  actual  practise,  with  or  without  a 
definite  aim  or  ideal  upon  the  part  of  the 
educator.  At  best,  we  can  only  manipulate 
stimuli  and  environment  in  a manner  con- 
ducive to  the  desired  changes  in  the  hu- 
man organism.  Education  is  not  properly 
a daily  task  for  a sleepy  pedagogue,  a 
pedant,  or  a mere  wage-earner.  There  are 
profound  problems  in  physics,  chemistry, 
zoology,  physiology,  psychology,  as  well  as 
in  ethics,  and  economics,  before  the  profes- 
sional educator  of  to-morrow.  Two  sub- 
jects at  this  point  are  suggested  which  con- 
cern the  more  perfect  realization  of  an  edu- 
cational system,  considered  as  an  integral 
part  of  our  developing  structure  of  democ- 
racy. These  subjects  are:  The  nature  of 
universal  education,  and  the  organization 
and  practical  administration  of  universal 
education. 

Public  education  as  a deliberate  attempt 
upon  the  part  of  the  state  to  change  and 


4 


SCHOOL  AND  SOCIETY 


mold  human  (beings  can  have  no  narrow 
aim,  restricted  ideals,  or  he  an  exclusive 
privilege  of  caste,  of  sect,  of  wealth,  or  of 
poverty.  The  process  touches  all  ages  of 
men,  both  sexes,  all  races,  and  is  to  be  artic- 
ulated with  all  useful  occupations  of  agri- 
culture, forestry,  animal  husbandry ; of  the 
extraction  of  minerals ; of  the  manufactur- 
ing and  mechanical  industries  of  the  fac- 
tory, building  or  hand-trades ; of  commerce ; 
of  public  service;  of  professional  service; 
of  domestic  and  personal  activities ; or  with 
the  merely  clerical  occupations.  Universal 
education  includes  in  its  scope  appropri- 
ate training  in  skill,  or  in  knowledge,  of 
those  human  beings  who  exhibit  extreme 
individual  variation  from  their  kind, 
whether  the  variation  be  destructive  or  ab- 
normal, or  of  unusual  mental  capacity,  the 
supernormal,  or  of  the  defective — such  as 
the  feeble-minded,  the  confirmed  delin- 
quent, and  the  blind,  and  the  deaf,  and  the 
crippled.  There  are  kindergartens,  pri- 
mary grades,  grammar  grades,  intermedi- 
ate schools,  junior  high  schools,  classical 
high  schools,  commercial  high  schools,  tech- 
nical high  schools,  industrial,  trade,  con- 
tinuation, part-time  and  evening  schools. 
Scores  of  differentiations  in  school  work 
to  adapt  better  the  school  to  individual  and 
community  need  are  familiar,  e.  g.,  open-air 
classes,  oral  teaching  of  the  deaf,  classes  for 
epileptics,  schools  for  the  preventive  mode 
of  attack  upon  vice  and  crime.  And  in 
addition,  utilized  by  a fractional  percent- 
age of  our  population,  there  are  the  col- 
leges, the  professional  schools,  and  the  uni- 
versities. Whatever  may  be  one’s  verbal 
definition  of  universal  education,  a glimpse 
of  this  list  of  typical  kinds  of  educational 
machinery  at  work  in  our  country  reveals 
the  presence  of  multitudinous,  formal  in- 
struments of  education  which,  if  they  were 
consciously  coordinated  for  the  higher  pur- 
poses of  democracy  conceived  as  organ- 
ized humanism,  would  constitute  a near- 


realization of  universal  education  in  prac- 
tise. 

Both  the  common  striving  for  universal 
education  and  the  vigorous  expression  of 
individualism  are  witnessed  in  these  mul- 
titudinous forms  of  educational  machinery. 
The  present  status  is  not  without  danger, 
lest  conflict,  waste  and  chaos  result  from 
the  failure  to  coordinate  the  whole  school 
machinery  of  the  nation,  through  the 
power  of  broadly  democratic  and  pure 
educational  ideals,  clarified  and  made  con- 
trolling in  the  thinking,  customs,  and  laws 
of  our  swelling  population.  The  difficul- 
ties of  teachers  in  mental  reconstruction,  in 
surrendering  prejudices,  or,  at  least,  in 
keeping  in  proper  relation  those  educa- 
tional aims  or  ends  which  are  immediate  or 
proximate  in  nature,  distinct  from  those 
ends,  aims  and  ideals  which  are  consum- 
mate or  ultimate  in  nature,  are  a persist- 
ent obstruction  to  better  realization  of  uni- 
versal education.  The  traditional  notions  of 
formal  and  of  mental  discipline,  culture, 
development,  utility,  knowledge,  as  aims  in 
education  doubtless  will  continue,  but  they 
will  be  subordinated  to  the  ultimate  aim  of 
education  for  service,  an  education  produc- 
ing men  and  women  who  live  in  health,  in 
economic  productivity,  and  in  observance 
of  standards  of  conduct,  and  in  the  happi- 
ness of  brotherhood,  whatever  be  the  occu- 
pation or  status  of  the  individual. 
Neither  crass  materialism,  on  the  one 
hand,  nor  obsolete  asceticism,  on  the  other, 
will  suffice  in  place  of  this  unifying  con- 
ception of  the  mission  of  public  education. 

UNDERSTANDING  AND  COOPERATION  VS.  FORCE 

We  hope  that  the  coordination,  organiza- 
tion, and  practical  adminstration  of  all  the 
resources  of  investment,  income,  officials, 
and  teachers  enlisted  in  public  education, 
may  be  accomplished  through  the  spread 
of  such  idealism,  and  of  clear-cut  compre- 
hensions of  educational  science,  rather  than 


SCHOOL  AND  SOCIETY 


5 


by  the  sudden  centralizing  of  political 
power  in  education,  or  by  undemocratic  im- 
position of  force.  Thus  may  we  hope  to 
bring  into  more  effective  articulation  not 
only  the  diverse  forms  of  education  main- 
tained by  the  state,  but  also  to  include  in 
this  articulation  more  satisfactorily  to  all 
concerned  the  educational  instruments  of 
the  church,  and  of  endowed  institutions. 
The  unsatisfactory  organization  of  Ameri- 
can education,  of  course,  can  be  under- 
stood only  by  reference  to  conditions  of  its 
origin.  Not  referred  to  in  the  federal  con- 
stitution, public  education  was  an  interest 
left  to  the  states.  The  development  of  fed- 
eral policies  toward  education  has  been 
slow  but  positive,  as  evinced  by  land 
grants,  the  establishment  of  the  Bureau  of 
Education,  the  passage  of  the  Morrill  Act, 
the  Smith-Lever  Act  and  the  direct  partici- 
pation of  governmental  authorities  in  the 
educational  work  of  Hawaii,  the  Philip- 
pines, Alaska,  Porto  Rico,  and  lastly,  by 
the  enactment  recently  of  the  Smith- 
Hughes  Act.  We  interpret  the  federal  pol- 
icy as  one  of  encouragement,  enlightenment 
and  aid  toward  education.  Direction 
toward  uniformity  and  minimal  essentials, 
where  these  are  desirable,  without  cramp- 
ing individual  or  local  initiative,  is  an  in- 
creasing tendency  discerned  especially  in 
the  splendid  Smith-Hughes  Act,  the  active 
administration  of  which  by  the  new  federal 
board  will  be  observed  keenly  by  practi- 
tioners and  idealists  in  education. 

PROGRESS  AGAINST  OBSTACLES 

Equally  interesting  are  the  present 
status  and  the  evolution  of  characteristic 
state,  county,  township,  town  and  munici- 
pal organizations  of  education  within  our 
forty-eight  states.  Public  education  has 
developed  in  spite  of  early  conditions 
against  education — the  primitive  condi- 
tions of  the  wilderness,  of  poverty,  per- 
sistent ideas  of  caste,  and  amid  the  rapid 


changes  due  to  exploration,  increasing 
population,  and  the  production  and  ex- 
penditure of  amazing  wealth.  Students  of 
educational  organization,  to-day  surveying 
the  failures  and  successes  in  our  administra- 
tion of  education,  are  able  with  some  certi- 
tude to  draw  the  outlines  of  better,  if  not 
ideal,  organization  of  the  forces  of  state, 
county,  and  municipality.  The  important 
distinctions  between  the  lay  function  of 
educational  control — that  of  legislation, 
consideration  of  policies,  finance,  and  the 
employment  of  experts,  and  the  profes- 
sional function,  whether  of  the  expert  exec- 
utive, the  director  of  departments,  super- 
visors, principals  or  teachers,  are  distinc- 
tions being  better  recognized.  Boards  and 
superintendents  and  teachers  are  improv- 
ing. Nevertheless,  the  reign  of  the  district 
trustee  is  not  ended.  To  the  number  of 
thirty  thousand  or  more  in  some  states  he 
combines  in  his  zealous  holding  to  an  ex- 
ploded notion  of  democracy,  a varied  and 
paralyzing,  educational  control  of  the 
schools.  Rural  education  suffers  from  the 
delay  in  sensible  county  reorganization. 
Municipalities  are  showing  encouraging 
tendencies  toward  the  small  school  board 
appointive,  or  elective  at  large,  with  the 
services  of  a trained  and  professional  su- 
perintendent, but  there  are  cities  whose 
schools  still  remain  under  the  domination 
of  political  rings,  and  there  are,  alas,  a few 
superintendents  in  name  who  are  mere 
tools  of  cliques,  excrescences  upon  both  edu- 
cation and  American  democracy.  Statistics 
show  that  the  leadership  in  great  things  has 
been  held  by  men  and  women  trained  in  our 
higher  institutions  of  learning.  This  is  a 
tribute  to  the  efficiency  of  the  hundreds  of 
noble  men  and  women  who  have  given  their 
lives  to  labors  of  instruction  and  research 
within  our  higher  institutions.  Their  pro- 
duction of  leadership  does  not  seem  to  di- 
minish. However,  our  universities — state, 
endowed,  and  denominational,  and  our  col- 


6 


SCHOOL  AND  SOCIETY 


leges,  and  normal  schools,  are  undergoing 
scrutiny,  questioning,  and  wholesome  trans- 
formation. In  the  process  of  self-examina- 
tion some  strange  products  of  the  system  of 
selection  of  men  by  mere  criteria  of  de- 
grees and  publications,  or  worse — by  sole 
criteria  of  social  or  political  influence,  are 
occasionally  uncovered.  Here  and  there 
men  are  found  in  normal  schools,  colleges 
and  universities,  posing  as  peculiarly  fit 
teachers  of  chosen  youths  of  this  democratic 
nation,  men  who  might  be  employed  better 
at  manual  labor,  or  in  a clerkship.  Ego- 
tism and  oracularism  parading  in  the  name 
of  science,  complacency  in  the  guise  of  the 
professional  philosopher,  ignorance,  and  bad 
manners  in  the  guise  of  a type  of  culture, 
anti-American  and  anti-social  notions 
flaunted  in  the  name  of  progressivism, 
small  souls  striving  for  livelihood,  con- 
spicuity,  or  leadership — such  as  these  are 
aliens  in  the  sphere  of  education  for  democ- 
racy. 

We  need  clearer  conceptions  of  the  sig- 
nificance and  necessity  of  universal  educa- 
tion, abandonment  by  educators  and  by 
, business  men,  of  narrow,  selfish  or  per- 
verted aims  or  propaganda.  We  need  selec- 
tion and  reward  of  teachers,  renewed  co- 
operation by  all  agencies  in  education  in 
order  to  conduct  an  education  suited  for 
life  in  our  American  democracy,  which  to- 
day presents  the  greatest  opportunity  of 
the  world ’s  history  wherein  to  work  out  the 
ideals  of  human  brotherhood.  By  a turn- 
ing to  practical  idealism  by  our  people,  we 


could  work  profitably  for  democracy.  If 
philosophers  and  psychologists  and  teach- 
ers could  help  to  disseminate  to  the  people 
clearer  conceptions,  expressed  in  simple 
terms  although  based  on  research,  about  the 
nature  of  education,  and  its  inevitable  rela- 
tions to  the  fundamentals  of  democracy, 
they  would  render  a patriotic  service  the 
results  of  which  should  be  enduring. 

To-day  a student  from  afar  observing  for 
the  first  time  the  educational  systems 
within  all  of  the  United  States,  from  Pacific 
to  Atlantic,  might  be  impressed  by  three 
vivid  characteristics  of  our  American  Edu- 
cation. First,  by  the  magnitude  of  present 
educational  efforts,  whether  estimated  by 
the  twenty  millions  of  young  lives  enrolled, 
or  according  to  the  eight  hundred  millions 
of  dollars  expended  yearly  for  education; 
secondly,  by  the  variability  in  educational 
organizations,  administration,  methods,  and 
expense ; and  thirdly,  by  the  persistence  of 
certain  fundamental  convictions,  aspira- 
tions, and  of  faith  toward  education,  in  the 
minds  of  our  one  hundred  millions  of  peo- 
ple. Now  that  the  pillars  of  civilization 
tremble,  well  may  we  pause  to  scrutinize 
our  educational  system  as  it  affects  democ- 
racy, to  examine  present  democracy  as  af- 
fecting education,  and  to  consider  both  edu- 
cation and  democracy  in  the  light  of 
human  experience,  in  order  that  we  may 
renew  our  zeal  for  our  country  and  our  be- 
lief in  humanity. 

David  Spence  Hill 
The  University  of  Wisconsin 


